‘Killing is section of their lifestyles’: the males raised on violence who are each perpetrators and victims as South Sudan faces return to civil war

*Some pseudonyms are used to protect the identities of interviewees, especially when discussing sensitive topics.

Echoes of Conflict: Personal Stories from South Sudan

“I’ve seen many people struggle,” shares Lokwi, a weathered man, gesturing toward a young girl cooking beside their humble shelter. “The woman’s husband… was killed here.” His voice carries the weight of memories from 1988, when his brother fell victim to soldiers from the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA). At that time, Lokwi was a teenager living in Kapoeta, a town surrounded by conflict, where his family had made their home. The day his brother was murdered, chaos erupted, forcing everyone to flee:

“That day was devastating… Entire villages were set ablaze, and civilians were attacked indiscriminately. People scattered in all directions.”

South Sudan, a landlocked nation of approximately 11.5 million people, is divided by the White Nile and has endured decades of internal strife before declaring independence from Sudan in 2011. While independence initially sparked hope for peace, this optimism was short-lived. By 2013, internal political disputes reignited violence, plunging the country into renewed conflict.

Despite a 2018 ceasefire and power-sharing agreements between rival factions, implementation has been sluggish, hampered by economic hardship, climate-induced food shortages, and deep-rooted ethnic tensions. These factors continue to fuel cycles of violence, mistrust, and displacement. In April 2023, UN Special Representative Nicholas Haysom warned that South Sudan remains perilously close to another civil war, underscoring the fragile peace process.

Personal Resilience Amidst Ongoing Violence

Lokwi, a member of the Toposa community, remains haunted by the memory of his brother’s death. He recounts fleeing into the bush, surviving on wild fruits for days until he reached Narus, where a local Dinka man provided him with food. Returning to his village, he found everything razed-homes, livestock, and stored grains burned to the ground. Despite the destruction, Lokwi resolved to rebuild, though his brother, now residing in Narus, vowed never to return to their homeland, citing the trauma and pain of past conflicts.

Today, Lokwi dedicates himself to peacebuilding efforts, advocating for dialogue among conflicting groups in his community. He emphasizes the challenge of persuading young men to reject violence:

“When I try to convince them to end the fighting… we gather families and community members to speak openly about the harm caused. I tell them, ‘Women give birth to future generations. Why would you kill women?’ Some listen and change, but others remain entrenched in violence.”

Historical Roots of Cattle Raiding and Its Modern Consequences

In 2024, researchers Anna Adiyo Sebit and colleagues conducted interviews with over 400 individuals from the Toposa and Nuer communities as part of the XCEPT program, based at King’s College London. Their goal was to understand how trauma related to conflict influences individuals’ propensity for violence.

One of South Sudan’s most persistent conflicts involves cattle raiding-a practice central to pastoralist societies like the Dinka, Nuer, and Toposa, who comprise over half the population. Cattle are not only a source of wealth but also integral to social customs such as dowry payments and compensation for disputes. Consequently, disputes over cattle often escalate into violent clashes.

Historically, cattle raids involved primitive weapons like sticks and spears, but decades of conflict have transformed these acts into deadly encounters involving firearms, especially AK-47s. A retired warrior recalls:

“In our ancestors’ time, conflicts involved stones, spears, and clubs. Raids were limited and less lethal. But with the advent of automatic rifles, the scale and casualties of cattle raids have skyrocketed.”

Within these communities, gender roles are deeply ingrained: women and girls are expected to manage domestic chores and subsistence farming, while men are tasked with herding and defending cattle. Young men often spend extended periods in cattle camps, which are prime targets for rival groups seeking to steal livestock.

Raiding is often intertwined with social status; successful raids elevate a young man’s reputation among peers and can even influence marriage prospects. However, the trauma inflicted by violence from a young age can lead to cycles of revenge, perpetuating ongoing violence and instability.

Women and girls bear the brunt of this violence, with a 2024 UN Population Fund report indicating that 65% of females in South Sudan have experienced some form of gender-based violence, including sexual assault and abductions by armed groups. The ongoing conflict exacerbates these vulnerabilities, creating a cycle of trauma and insecurity.

Challenging Masculine Norms and Addressing Trauma

Lokwi actively confronts issues of violence and masculinity at community gatherings, urging young men to reconsider their roles:

“I tell them during community meetings: ‘Women are the bearers of future generations. Why would you kill women?’ Some are moved by these words and listen, but others see violence as part of their identity and continue to kill.”

The Cultural Expectations of Manhood

In South Sudan, societal norms strongly influence male behavior. Men are expected to be providers, protectors, and symbols of strength and resilience. These expectations often suppress emotional expression, leading to a culture where vulnerability is stigmatized.

Research indicates that men and boys are more prone to maladaptive coping strategies such as risk-taking, withdrawal, substance abuse, and violence when under stress. A study by the NGO Promundo highlights that men are more likely than women to exhibit such behaviors, which are often linked to unaddressed trauma and societal pressures to appear stoic.

In conflict zones, these pressures intensify. Men may feel compelled to prove their masculinity through violence or cattle raids, especially when their social standing or ability to provide is threatened. The inability to meet these expectations can lead to feelings of shame, frustration, and increased aggression.

Personal Stories of Trauma and Resilience

Eric, a young man from Eastern Equatoria, recounts the hardships of growing up amidst violence. Orphaned at age ten, he inherited his father’s wealth-mainly cattle-which was passed down to male relatives, reflecting the gendered nature of property rights in rural South Sudan. Facing abuse from his uncles and witnessing violence against his mother, Eric’s childhood was marred by trauma.

To survive, Eric participated in cattle raids, which involved killing livestock owners to steal cattle. His first raid yielded four cows, which he was forced to surrender to his stepfathers, following local customs. Over time, he accumulated more cattle, which enabled him to marry and start a family. Yet, the violence left scars; Eric fears retaliation and keeps a low profile, avoiding recognition as a warrior:

“I have killed six enemies, so I am considered a warrior in my community. I prefer to keep my identity hidden because they might kill me if they find out.”

Eric’s story exemplifies how early exposure to violence and the pressure to prove masculinity can entrench cycles of revenge and conflict. Many young men like him find it difficult to express vulnerability, as societal expectations equate masculinity with strength and resilience.

The Psychological Toll of War

During my research in Nepal, I interviewed veterans of the People’s Liberation Army (PLA), exploring how their participation in civil war shaped their perceptions of masculinity. While I did not explicitly inquire about trauma, their responses revealed underlying emotional struggles. Many expressed feelings of disillusionment, frustration, and an inability to meet societal expectations of masculinity, often hiding these feelings beneath a stoic exterior.

In informal conversations, these men shared experiences of flashbacks, sleep disturbances, and irritability-signs consistent with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). One young veteran described hearing bomb blasts in his sleep, unable to find peace. Another recounted enduring torture and witnessing atrocities, which left him emotionally scarred and reluctant to return to combat, especially after seeing his young children.

Many veterans feel uneasy about expressing vulnerability, as cultural norms discourage men from showing weakness. During a gathering in Bardiya, an ex-PLA fighter expressed frustration at being unable to share his feelings openly, highlighting the lack of safe spaces for men to process trauma.

Across Nepal and South Sudan, the common thread is clear: men who have experienced war and violence often struggle silently, caught between societal expectations of masculinity and the need to address their mental health. Limited access to gender-sensitive mental health services exacerbates this issue, leaving many to cope alone with their pain.

Addressing the Silence: The Need for Inclusive Support

Organizations like Catholic Relief Services (CRS) are pioneering trauma-awareness programs tailored for men, recognizing that healing must include addressing masculinity norms. These initiatives aim to create safe environments where men can share their experiences without fear of judgment, fostering community resilience and reducing cycles of violence.

Luol, a CRS program facilitator, explains that many young men resort to cattle raiding because they lack alternative means of securing resources or social status. Trauma counseling and livelihood programs are vital in breaking this cycle, helping men find constructive ways to cope and rebuild their lives.

While progress has been made, funding and cultural acceptance remain challenges. Still, integrating mental health support into broader peacebuilding efforts is essential for sustainable stability in conflict-affected regions like South Sudan.

Reframing Violence: From Perpetrators to Peacemakers

Although men are often the primary agents of violence, they also hold the potential to be powerful agents of peace. Recognizing this, some organizations advocate for engaging men as allies in conflict resolution, emphasizing the importance of transforming societal norms around masculinity.

However, gender stereotypes within humanitarian responses often overlook men’s vulnerabilities, framing them solely as perpetrators. A 2021 report by Promundo criticizes this approach, noting that neglecting men’s trauma hampers peace efforts and perpetuates cycles of violence.

In South Sudan, community leaders and peace activists like Lokwi are working to challenge these stereotypes, encouraging dialogue and understanding. Their efforts highlight the importance of including men in peacebuilding, not just as fighters but as custodians of stability and change.

Conclusion: Toward a Holistic Approach to Peace and Healing

Understanding the complex interplay between trauma, societal expectations, and violence is crucial for fostering lasting peace in South Sudan and similar conflict zones. Addressing men’s mental health and redefining masculinity can help break cycles of revenge and violence, paving the way for reconciliation and community resilience.

As the international community continues to support peace initiatives, integrating trauma-informed care for men and boys must become a priority. Only by acknowledging and addressing these deep-rooted issues can sustainable peace be achieved, ensuring that future generations can thrive free from the shadows of conflict.

Further Reading and Resources

• Embracing uncertainty: Lessons from Kenyan herders on resilience in unpredictable environments

• Sexual violence in conflict zones: Insights from UN peacekeeping missions in the DRC

• Challenging narratives: How governments and NGOs can better protect journalists in volatile regions

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